Peer Reviewed Articles for Strategies for Teaching Culturally Diverse Students

• Journal List
• Wiley-Blackwell Online Open
• PMC7496989

Br J Educ Psychol. 2020 Sep; 90(3): 736–752.

Teachers' multicultural attitudes and perspective taking abilities as factors in culturally responsive instruction

Ceren Su Abacioglu

^ane Research Constitute of Child Evolution and Pedagogy, Educational Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Holland,

Monique Volman

¹ Research Found of Kid Evolution and Instruction, Educational Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Holland,

Agneta H. Fischer

² Department of Psychology, Social Psychology, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands,

Received 2019 Apr 23; Revised 2019 Apr 21

Abstract

Background

Culturally responsive pedagogy (CRT) has been associated with increased student engagement and achievement. Its practice in classrooms, nevertheless, has been shown to be less than optimal. Nonetheless, certain teacher qualities take been suggested to facilitate its practice.

Aims

The electric current study sought quantitative bear witness in back up of two of these teacher qualities, namely teachers' multicultural attitudes, and their perspective taking abilities. By identifying the forcefulness of the suggested relationships, we aimed to examine the generalizability of previous findings in the literature and inform teachers' professional person development and interventions.

Sample

A total of 143 primary school teachers from dissimilar parts of the Netherlands responded to our online survey.

Methods

We conducted a multivariate multiple regression assay to investigate the human relationship between these qualities and teachers' engagement in two separate but related components of CRT (i.eastward., socially sensitive and culturally sensitive teaching).

Results

Results of our analysis yielded significant relationships betwixt the two teacher qualities and the frequency with which teachers engage in socially and culturally sensitive education. Perspective taking was a stronger predictor for both aspects of CRT.

Determination

These findings point the significance of incorporating especially perspective taking experiences and exercises into instructor education and professional development programmes, which could benefit all students regardless of their backgrounds. Our results are promising as these qualities are malleable and thus can be improved.

Keywords: culturally responsive teaching, perspective taking, multicultural attitudes and sensation, multicultural education, quantitative research

Background

The debate around variety currently is a salient and permanent attribute of educational soapbox, as learning and teaching in multicultural classrooms accept brought major challenges to both teachers and students. The educational position of students with a migration history nevertheless continues to be disadvantaged compared to their peers with no history of migration (OECD, 2016). These findings suggest that more than attention should be paid to factors that may support students' educational success (Phalet, Andriessen, & Lens, 2004).

In general, students feel valued, more capable of learning, and more engaged with the learning environment and materials when the teacher is responsive to their needs (e.chiliad., Gay, 2010; Nieto, 2004). Culturally responsive teaching (CRT), defined by Gay (2010, p. 31) as 'using the cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames of reference, and performance styles of ethnically diverse students to make learning encounters more than relevant to and effective for them', has been particularly associated with increased date and involvement in schoolhouse and increased educational accomplishment of minoritized students (Aronson & Laughter, 2016). While there is a plethora of inquiry on how to improve CRT, its exercise in the classrooms has been shown to be less than optimal (Lim, Tan, & Saito, 2019). One explanation for this trouble could be that certain teacher qualities are necessary for effective CRT (Gay, 2013).

The current report aims to contribute quantitative show to the existing literature by examining teacher qualities that have previously been suggested to be essential for CRT (reviewed in Rychly & Graves, 2012). More specifically, we investigate teachers' perspective taking abilities and their multicultural attitudes in relation to their self‐reported CRT. To the best of our knowledge, the electric current study is the first to examine these connections quantitatively. With this quantitative evidence, we can examine the generalizability of previous findings in the literature, using a larger sample and more than robust information. Additionally, by examining the forcefulness of the suggested relationships, we promise to gain more insight in teachers' professional person development and near effective interventions.

Culturally responsive teaching

The unfavourable educational position of ethnically minoritized students has been attributed to a mismatch between home and schoolhouse cultures (Phalet et al., 2004). Advocates of CRT accept therefore argued that academic knowledge and skills should exist connected to students' personal experiences and frames of reference inside a supportive and cooperative environment. This mode, learning becomes more meaningful and engaging (Gay, 2000, 2002). Indeed, unlike aspects of CRT have been establish to be related to positive educatee outcomes, such as increased student date, meliorate achievement, and more than positive peer relationships.

As detailed past Gay (2002), CRT includes developing a culturally diverse knowledge base by learning about differences in communication and learning styles, and attention to unique cultural qualities of the students and their realities (due east.thousand., racism and bigotry). In order to build this knowledge base, teachers demand to learn about the various elements of students' culture—ranging from tangible culture or family experiences, artefacts, and events to intangible civilization such every bit values, traditions, language, and identity—through their own research and meaningful relationships with students (Morrison, Robbins, & Rose, 2008). This can be achieved by, for instance, making dwelling house visits at the commencement of the schoolhouse year, giving opportunities to students to share personal experiences via classroom discussions, or request students to write stories almost their lives (Morrison et al., 2008). This would aid teachers to identify the ways in which mainstream schooling and culture may differ from the home culture of certain students, and how their culture and language may contribute to their attitudes and behaviours. Turkish club, for case, is characterized by generational bureaucracy. Appropriately, children'due south relationships with authority figures such as their fathers and their teachers are, to a nifty extent, marked by conformity, whereas taking initiative and posing questions are discouraged (Sunar & Fişek, 2005).

Culturally responsive education also implies designing culturally relevant curricula and culturally responsive instructions to make learning more relevant and effective (Gay, 2002). Relating learning materials to students' personal lives tin vary from simply posting a vocal that shows acknowledgement of their students' backgrounds (Landsman, 2006) to a more thorough examination of the teaching textile in order to ensure that information technology does not only reverberate the mainstream perspectives. Feger (2006), for example, showed that her students, who were predominantly migrants from the Caribbean and Primal and South America, were more engaged in reading, more critical most the reading material, and were able to identify more with the selected texts when she included literature that offered characters and issues similar to her students' lives. Dimick (2012) as well showed that when students in an environmental science course were included in a shared decision‐making process to create school projects relevant to their community, they felt not but academically just besides socially and politically empowered.

Lastly, CRT comprises demonstrations of cultural caring, edifice a learning customs, and effective cantankerous‐cultural communication (Gay, 2002). In addition to the challenges of addressing diversity issues within the curriculum, the demand to address social competence has been increasing, equally this is crucial for student engagement (see, due east.g., Self Determination Theory; Deci & Ryan, 1985). Team‐building activities, for case, promote social cohesion and a sense of solidarity. Creating an inclusive social–emotional climate helps students to feel more at ease when they express personal opinions and experiences (Cuseo, 2000). Moreover, Harriott and Martin (2016) reported that cooperative learning opportunities among students who differ in their cultural heritage and accomplishment levels promote friendship formation, prosocial interactions, acceptance of differences between peers, and back up for others' learning. These opportunities thus may help students from various groups to familiarize with each other, facilitate substitution of cultural information, acquire to value variety, and use the cultural resource of their peers in creative problem‐solving (Johnson & Johnson, 2000).

In sum, diverse CRT practices may lead to more critical and active learning and better school engagement (run into Morrison, Robbins, and Rose's synthesis of research on what CRT 'looks like' in classrooms; 2008).

Teacher qualities essential for CRT

The aforementioned relationships between dissimilar aspects of CRT and positive student outcomes suggest that the educational position of minoritized students could be improved with teachers' attending to the variability in their students' experiences and needs. However, withal the expanding literature on these positive outcomes and the availability of practical information on how to ameliorate educational and pedagogical practices, CRT has been criticized to exist either not implemented at all (Kim & Pulido, 2015; Ladson‐Billings, 2014) or implemented at a rather superficial level, such as through celebration of ethnic foods (Sleeter & McLaren, 2009). This suggests that many teachers could further improve their capacities to adapt their teaching to the needs of a diverse educatee body. With the electric current enquiry, nosotros will examine whether specific teacher qualities are related to the frequency with which teachers engage in the more meaningful aspects of CRT.

In their review, Rychly and Graves (2012) identified three teacher qualities that are especially of import for CRT. Showtime, teachers should be able to take their students' perspectives. This involves replacing ane'southward own frame of reference by the other's perspective, and agreement where their students come from and where they stand, when preparing their educational surroundings, forming and/or implementing the curriculum and the instructional material (Cooper, 2004; McAllister & Irvine, 2002; Robins, Lindsey, Lindsey, & Terrell, 2006). Second, teachers should develop positive attitudes and beliefs about other cultures, as well as be aware of their own cultural frames of reference (Grant & Asimeng‐Boahene, 2006; Nieto, 2004). Lastly, teachers should have knowledge most cultures that are represented in their classrooms to be able to conform their pedagogy appropriately (Rychly & Graves, 2012). In the current study, we test the first 2 proposed relationships by examining whether teachers' perspective taking abilities and multicultural attitudes are associated with the frequency with which they engage in CRT.

Perspective taking – the ability to perceive things from a point of view other than one's own (Moskowitz, 2005, p. 277), has been proposed to be a desirable trait for teachers in multicultural settings. It has been previously associated with appreciation and respect for individuals' unique experiences, and with flexibility, reduced stereotyping (Galinsky & Moskowitz, 2000), and sensitivity to different cultures (Germain, 1998). Teachers who can accept the perspectives of their students are able to ameliorate understand their students' dissimilar needs and adapt their instruction and curricula to friction match these needs (Darling‐Hammond, 2000; McAllister & Irvine, 2002). Teachers who can take others' perspectives are expected to be more successful in providing unbiased education (Rychly & Graves, 2012). We therefore hypothesized that (H1) teachers who accept higher perspective taking abilities will more frequently engage in CRT.

In addition to beingness able to accept others' perspectives, teachers' ain attitudes and beliefs are suggested to be important for CRT as well. Especially implicit stereotypes and negative attitudes can influence student judgements and contribute to unfavourable educational outcomes of minoritized students (Tobisch & Dresel, 2017). Teachers' decisions on selecting students for various academic tracks, for instance, have been found to be afflicted by stereotypical achievement expectations that are activated by as little information as a prototypical name (Tobisch & Dresel, 2017). Teachers cannot effectively appoint in CRT, unless they hold positive attitudes towards diversity and are enlightened of their own, sometimes biased, attitudes and beliefs about other cultures (Nieto, 2004). Nosotros use the umbrella term 'multicultural attitudes' to reflect 'teachers' awareness of, condolement with, and sensitivity to issues of cultural pluralism', following the definition of Ponterotto, Baluch, Greig, and Rivera, (1998, p. 1003). Teachers with more than positive multicultural attitudes consider cultural multifariousness every bit an nugget and feel more compelled to address issues around diversity in their teaching (Ponterotto et al., 1998). We therefore hypothesized that (H2) teachers who accept more than positive multicultural attitudes will engage in CRT more than often.

The current study

We tested whether the extent of teachers' CRT practices is associated with (1) teachers' perspective taking abilities and (2) teachers' multicultural attitudes. Our target group was master school teachers. Master school years are very important in students' developmental trajectories with long‐term consequences in their academic and social development (Swanson, Cunningham, Youngblood, & Spencer, 2009). In add-on, nosotros asked teachers to report on their own indigenous background as well as the concentration of ethnically minoritized students in their classroom, since teachers in these classrooms might be more aware of issues around diversity (Edwards, 2016) and thus might engage more than in CRT (Thijs & Verkuyten, 2014). Previous studies have shown that the urgency to give attention to diverseness matters is more credible in schools with college concentrations of ethnically minoritized children, whereas in schools with fewer ethnically minoritized children, discussing such matters is perceived as less relevant and thus harder to achieve (Agirdag, Merry, & Van Houtte, 2016). Moreover, with increased exposure to a diverse student torso, teachers may develop more positive attitudes and more awareness almost diversity (Allport, 1954). Accordingly, starting time teachers, for example, may find dealing with diversity more challenging. We therefore also included teachers' age and years of pedagogy feel in our study (van Tartwijk, den Brok, Veldman, & Wubbels, 2009).

Method

Participants

Hundred and twoscore‐three primary school teachers from cities in all regions of the Netherlands responded to an online advertisement targeting our specific sample. Participants received €10 for their participation. One person was excluded on the ground of not attending to the questionnaire (all questions had the same ratings), and 8 participants were excluded for not meeting our selection criteria. Moreover, i participant was excluded due to her scores that were multivariate outliers. 86.9% of the remaining sample (M _age = 38.93, SD _{historic period} = 11.71, 84.vii% female) indicated Dutch as their beginning ethnic affiliation, 19.7% of which besides identified with a 2nd ethnic background. thirteen.1% of the sample did not specify their indigenous backgrounds. The participants were predominantly female and white, as also institute in previously published studies conducted in the netherlands (due east.g., Abacioglu et al., 2019; Van Den Bergh, Denessen, Hornstra, Voeten, & Holland, 2010). Our sample demographics mirror the teaching forcefulness in the Netherlands, which has been increasing in variety, but is still adequately homogenous.

Procedure and design

All the questionnaires were administered in Dutch. In lodge to ensure correct translations, the English language questionnaires were translated from and dorsum‐translated to English (except for the Interpersonal Reactivity Alphabetize for which we used an existing translation in Dutch, see the Materials section). Moreover, items were reviewed by a squad of seven individuals comprising teacher educators, in‐service teachers, and educational scientists for the appropriateness of the items for the Dutch educational context.

For participant recruitment, nosotros used Facebook'south advertising opportunities to target teachers with the desired background (i.e., primary schoolhouse in‐service teachers in Dutch schools). The advertisement included minimal data, indicating that we are recruiting for a study on cultural diverseness. The report'due south duration and the amount of budgetary compensation were included in the description.

Ethical approving for this study (2017CDE7604) was granted past the Ethics Review Board of the Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Academy of Amsterdam, the netherlands. The participating teachers filled in an online survey on Qualtrics that lasted about 15 min to consummate. Participation was voluntary and anonymous equally the survey ended immediately if the participant did non give consent at the offset of the survey.

Measures

Culturally responsive education practices

Teachers responded to forty statements on a v‐point Likert‐type scale, about their practices in student cess, curriculum and instruction, classroom management, and cultural enrichment. The items were based on the Culturally Responsive Teaching Self‐efficacy Calibration (CRTSES; Siwatu, 2007), but have been adapted to measure practices in the classrooms. An example item from the survey is 'I identify the diverse needs of my students' (responses on a scale from i: never to v: ever).

Some items were excluded from our analyses because of the following reasons: they were not representative of the Dutch educational context, they were also field of study specific (east.g., 'I tell about the achievements of culturally unlike others in Math'), they were most the home life of the students, or they were too similar to other items. For instance, the particular 'I place means in which standardized tests can exist prejudiced against culturally unlike students' does non apply to the Dutch context, because as in the netherlands a nation‐broad standardized test is used by all schools (i.e., CITO). Private teachers do not take whatsoever command over its content.

Conceptually, we retained items that brutal under two categories: items that were representative of teachers' cultural responsiveness (e.g., 'I use the cultural background of my students to brand learning meaningful'), and an overall responsiveness to students' academic (e.g., academic strengths and weaknesses of students) and social needs (eastward.g., positive relationships with classmates). In order to exam this categorization, nosotros performed a factor assay with two forced factors every bit detailed in the Data Assay department. Examining the cistron structure of these items indicated a good fit for a ii‐gene solution of the information. Throughout the text, these categories are referred to as 'culturally sensitive didactics' (α = .83) and 'socially sensitive teaching', respectively (α = .73). Sum scores were calculated per category (see the Appendix for the retained items and their factor loadings).

Perspective taking

Teachers' self‐reported perspective taking abilities were measured using the perspective taking subscale of the Dutch version of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (De Corte et al., 2007), originally developed by Davis (1983). Participants responded to 7 items on a 5‐point Likert scale (i: does not depict me well, 5: describes me very well), asking them to report how likely they are to endeavour seeing things from some other person'due south point of view. An example particular from the survey is 'I sometimes effort to empathize my friends improve by imagining how things look from their perspective'. Sum scores were calculated per participant. Higher scores indicate stronger perspective taking abilities (α = .72).

Teacher multicultural attitudes

Teachers' cultural awareness and sensitivity were assessed with the Instructor Multicultural Attitudes Survey (TMAS; Ponterotto et al., 1998). Teachers responded to 20 statements on a five‐point Likert scale (1: strongly disagree, five: strongly agree). An example particular from the survey is 'Teachers have the responsibility to be enlightened of their students' cultural backgrounds'. TMAS has shown low social desirability and is unique in its focus on the educational context. It has yielded convergent correlations with scales measuring individuals' subtle racial and gender bias (due east.g., the Quick Bigotry Alphabetize; Ponterotto et al., 1995) and attitudes towards and interactions with outgroup members (e.g., the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure, Other Group Orientation subscale; Phinney, 1992), supporting its construct validity with r = .45 and r = .31, respectively (Ponterotto et al., 1998). Sum scores were calculated per participant. College scores indicate more positive attitudes and higher awareness. Reliability for the measure was α = .77.

Data analysis

Analysing patterns of missing values indicated that more than 5% of the values were missing completely at random (MCAR) with χ²(ane,220) = 1267.158, p = .170. Missing data were handled using pairwise deletions, as this method produces consistent and hence relatively unbiased estimates of the parameters when the data are MCAR (Allison, 2009). Checking the Mahalanobis distance using both sum scores and subscale scores from our measures indicated ane multivariate outlier in our data (df = viii, α = .05), which was excluded from our sample.

To ostend the cistron structure of the items, nosotros retained from the Culturally Responsive Pedagogy Practices mensurate (based on Siwatu, 2007), we performed a cistron analysis using the remaining sample. The value of Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy (KMO) was .78, indicating that the forcefulness of the relationships among items was loftier, and Bartlett's exam of sphericity was significant, χ²(190) = 644.521, p < .001. The data hence met the assumptions of factor assay.

The factor analyses were performed using the maximum‐likelihood extraction method. An Oblimin rotation was used equally factors were expected to be correlated. We start discovered the factor structure with an exploratory factor analysis, χⁱⁱ(100) = 100.774, p = .459, and also examined a three‐factor solution, χ^two(133) = 166.962, p = .025. However, in line with our conceptual categorization, the two‐cistron solution fit our data the best, χ²(151) = 217.508, p < .001. The first factor had an eigenvalue of 5.338 and accounted for 26.7% of the variance in the data. Factor two had an eigenvalue of ii.106 and accounted for further 10.6% of the variance (meet Appendix for the cistron loadings).

In addition, we investigated whether at that place were any differences between groups of teachers with different indigenous identities regarding the main variables in our written report. A one‐mode MANOVA was performed with teachers' cocky‐identified ethnic background (only Dutch, Dutch and another, only some other) every bit the grouping variable, and their perspective taking, multicultural attitudes, and CRT as the variables to exist compared. We did not find a significant deviation on these variables based on indigenous background, F(8, 204) = .611, p = .606; Wilk's Λ = .940, partial η² = .03 (encounter Table ​ i). After, participants who indicated another affiliation than Dutch (e.grand., Turkish) or an boosted ethnic amalgamation to Dutch (e.g., Moroccan–Dutch) were grouped together to course ane group for easier estimation of our analysis results.

Table 1

MANOVA results for teachers grouped by their ethnic affiliation

	SS	Df	Hateful square	F	Sig.	η2
Perspective taking	28.032	ii	14.016	i.200	.305	.022
Multicultural attitudes	62.052	two	31.026	0.580	.562	.011
CRT: Culturally sensitive teaching	17.285	2	8.643	0.236	.790	.004
CRT: Socially sensitive teaching	xi.048	2	five.524	0.520	.596	.010

As we considered two predictor variables in gild to explain values of ii dependent variables (i.e., the ii components extracted from CRT: culturally sensitive educational activity and socially sensitive teaching), we used multivariate multiple regression to analyse our data. This approach is equivalent to performing separate univariate regressions independently for each dependent variable. Withal, the current analytical approach does non assume that the responses are independent from each other and do business relationship for the correlations between the dependent variables (Johnson & Wichern, 2015). Blazon 3 sums of squares method was used to judge the furnishings of predictors on the dependent variables afterward controlling for all the other variables in the model.

Results

Tabular array ​ 2 presents descriptive statistics and cipher‐lodge correlations among the variables. Teachers' Groundwork Qualities were non related to any of the outcome variables. The Concentration of Ethnically Minoritized Students in teachers' classrooms, on the other hand, was related to teachers' Attitudes, Perspective Taking Abilities, and their Culturally Sensitive Teaching. Teachers who reported more than positive Multicultural Attitudes, higher Perspective Taking Abilities, and more frequent Culturally Responsive Teaching worked in schools that had college Concentration of Minoritized Students.

Table ii

Descriptive statistics and zero‐order intercorrelations

	Mean	SD	1	2	3	4	5	six	7	8
one. Gender	–	–	1
2. Indigenous background	–	–	.048	1
three. Years of teaching	xiv.50	10.50	−.008	.076	1
4. Minoritized educatee concentration	33.35 (100)	31.53	−.086	−.145	.099	one
5. IRI: Perspective taking	24.77 (35)	3.75	.060	−.045	.201*	.284**	1
6. Multicultural attitudes	71.73 (100)	seven.39	−.065	.056	−.107	.289**	.235*	one
7. CRT: Culturally sensitive instruction	38.07 (55)	3.25	−.044	.064	.183	.345**	.329**	.429**	1
8. CRT: Socially sensitive teaching	38.37 (45)	6.01	−.009	.006	.087	.090	.243**	.227*	.425**	ane

In guild to test our hypotheses that teachers' Perspective Taking Abilities and Multicultural Attitudes are uniquely associated with Culturally Responsive Teaching Practices, nosotros conducted a multivariate multiple regression analysis with Perspective Taking and Multicultural Attitudes equally predictor variables, and their Culturally Sensitive Teaching and Socially Sensitive Teaching as the dependent variables, while nosotros controlled for their classroom's Ethnically Minoritized Educatee Concentration. The results of the analysis are presented in Figure ​ i.

The multivariate multiple regression model. The regression coefficients are unstandardized (the measurement scale is the same for all variables). *p < .05; **p < .01. Model R ² = .28.

Teachers' more positive Multicultural Attitudes and college Perspective Taking Abilities were significantly associated with engaging more in both the Culturally and Socially Sensitive aspects of Culturally Responsive Teaching. For both predictors, the human relationship was stronger for the Culturally Sensitive compared to the Socially Sensitive Teaching component. Further, Perspective Taking, compared to Multicultural Attitudes, was a stronger predictor of both components.

Discussion

The current written report investigated teachers' perspective taking abilities and their multicultural attitudes in relation to their self‐reported CRT practices. In doing so, nosotros sought evidence in support of teacher qualities that accept previously been suggested to exist essential for CRT (Cooper, 2004; Grant & Asimeng‐Boahene, 2006; McAllister & Irvine, 2002; Nieto, 2004; Robins et al., 2006; for a review see Rychly & Graves, 2012).

Our findings supported both hypotheses. Teachers who had better perspective taking abilities and more positive multicultural attitudes, reported to engage in CRT more oft. Interestingly, both multicultural attitudes and perspective taking abilities ameliorate predicted culturally sensitive compared to socially sensitive teaching. Culturally sensitive educational activity seems to be associated with practices that require greater willingness, effort, and ability to empathise private differences that relate to cultural elements. Socially sensitive education on the other manus seems to tap individual differences between students that are not necessarily due to cultural elements. Teacher qualities related to taking another persons' perspective and beingness aware of multifariousness of experiences may thus back up teachers' attempts to effectively navigate through these differences.

Some other important finding was that perspective taking was a stronger predictor for both components of CRT than multicultural attitudes were. One explanation for this finding could be that when reporting on their perspective taking abilities, teachers reflected relatively more on distinct cognitive processes in comparison with their attitudes, awareness, and beliefs, which are harder to recognize.

Finally, our results showed that teachers who reported more positive multicultural attitudes and better perspective taking abilities were appointed in schools with a higher concentration of ethnically minoritized students. This can exist explained in ii ways. These teachers might have actively chosen to teach in or did not drop out of schools/classrooms with higher minoritized educatee concentrations, because they feel more comfortable with dealing with diversity than their colleagues (Thijs & Verkuyten, 2014). Alternatively, teaching in rather diverse environments may accept resulted in more than positive multicultural attitudes and a stronger motivation to accept others' perspectives in teachers, due to an increased exposure to a diverse student body (Allport, 1954). Regardless, the finding that these teachers engage more frequently in the culturally and socially sensitive teaching aspects of CRT signals that perspective taking abilities and positive multicultural attitudes are both desirable teacher qualities for good teaching practices. Moreover, in line with previous research that showed that inducing perspective taking was effective in improving attitudes towards stigmatized groups such as the homeless (Batson et al., 1997) and ethnic and racial minoritized groups (Finlay & Stephan, 2000), our results also showed that teachers who had better perspective taking abilities reported to have more than positive multicultural attitudes.

Practical importance

Teachers' perspective taking abilities and multicultural attitudes seem critical for negotiating the complexities of variety in classrooms. These qualities enable teachers to better marshal their teaching to their students' needs. Our findings are promising for these qualities are malleable and thus tin be improved inasmuch equally teachers build on top of their existing knowledge on their students' values, beliefs, communities, personal lives, and experiences.

Along these lines, Warren (2018) recommended iii specific professional person learning experiences that could further teachers' perspective taking abilities. First, the author recommended teachers to become exposed to texts written on and past culturally and linguistically diverse populations in order to better recognize, determine, and scrutinize examples of institutionalized oppression. 2d, the author recommended teachers to participate in the social worlds and realities of individuals from cultural communities that differ from their own. Such experiences should induce changes in teachers' awareness, attitudes, beliefs, and values almost cultural differences. 3rd, the author postulated that these experiences must be accompanied by critical dialogue with colleagues on a regular basis. Introspection on emotional, behavioural, and cognitive reactions towards students and their families should form the basis of these dialogues.

Thus, similar to perspective taking abilities, meaningful direct contact with people from diverse backgrounds (Allport, 1954), and opportunities to reflect on how civilisation shapes our values, beliefs, biases, and behaviours have been shown to improve attitudes and awareness (Case, 2007). Therefore, teacher pedagogy experiences similar to that recommended by Warren (2018) can be introduced to instructor instruction and professional development programmes. This would support teachers' capacities to get more constructive in educational activity a diverse educatee torso. Chiefly, our results advise that strengthening these capacities would not simply improve the culturally sensitive teaching aspects of CRT but likewise teaching in a socially sensitive way to student needs in general. As such, strengthening these capacities would benefit all students regardless of their backgrounds. These findings point the significance of incorporating especially perspective taking experiences and exercises into instructor education and professional development programmes.

Limitations and directions for future research

This study also has some limitations. First, although teachers' ain experiences and self‐knowledge are important sources of information, self‐reports are also subject to social desirability and cocky‐enhancing biases. The anonymity provided by online data collection, compared to other methods such as observations and interviews, helps mitigate this limitation. Yet, individuals may not be fully aware of their own biases, which may obstruct the accuracy of their self‐reports (McDonald, 2008). Hereafter research may therefore include information from multiple informants to examination the accuracy of these self‐report findings. For example, the current study measured the willingness and tendency of teachers to take the perspective of others. Whether this is also reflected in their actual perspective taking in the classroom, notwithstanding, was not investigated.

2d, our measures were quantitative in nature because we aimed to observe quantitative support for results from previous mainly qualitative studies. Futurity studies could include multiple assessment methods, which could contribute to the methodological robustness in measuring complex constructs similar to the ones used in our study. We should note, however, that the measures we used (due east.chiliad., the IRI) have been validated in the past in numerous studies, and have also been shown to exist predictive of behavioural measures (Bonfils, Lysaker, Small, & Salyers, 2017; Gini, Albiero, Benelli, & Altoè, 2007; Hawk et al., 2013).

Third, the actual CRT practices of teachers were across the scope of this study. It is important that prospective studies investigate what CRT practices entail and how they differ for teachers with higher perspective taking abilities and more positive multicultural attitudes compared to their counterparts who are rather less skilled and whose attitudes are less positive. 'The Culturally Responsive Education Observation Protocol' (Powell, Cantrell, Malo‐Juvera, & Correll, 2016), providing a comprehensive operationalization of CRT around vii dissimilar elements, tin be used in combination with cocky‐report measures to decide the extent of CRT implementation.

Finally, our study focused on the Dutch educational system and therefore we excluded items from the original (English) CRT measure that did not apply to the Dutch context (see Siwatu, 2007). Like to any study of school context, some caution is therefore warranted with generalizing the results of this study to other settings. Moreover, we cannot exclude the possibility that teachers who are more positive on diverseness matters were more probable to respond to our social media advertisement for recruiting participants. Notwithstanding, it should be noted that this type of enquiry is near ever subject field to selection bias, regardless of the recruitment method (Forgasz, Tan, Leder, & McLeod, 2018). That beingness said, with the increasing utilise of social network sites for participant recruitment, enquiry on the representativeness of such samples has likewise increased. A contempo study (Zhang et al., 2018) compared results from separate surveys that included participants who were recruited using Facebook, who were independently recruited by a reputable survey research house, and who were recruited by the American Community Survey, participation of which is required by constabulary in the U.s.a.. The authors' analyses yielded identical outcomes for the surveys regardless of their recruitment method. We are therefore confident that our recruitment method did not compromise the representativeness of our sample and the generalizability of our results.

Despite the limitations, our research supplements the literature with of import first insights in a field that is nether‐researched. Our results showed that positive attitudes and awareness about variety, and perspective taking abilities are related to increases in cultural and social sensitivity in didactics. Hence, strengthening these capacities can improve the educational position of students with a migration history, as well equally benefit their peers without whatever history of migration.

Conflicts of interest

All authors declare no conflict of involvement.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Yield Graduate Programme grant (project number 022.006.013) obtained from kingdom of the netherlands Arrangement for Scientific Research (De Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek; NWO).

Culturally responsive teaching practices

Conceptually, from the Culturally Responsive Teaching Practices measure (based on Siwatu, 2007), we retained items that fell nether two categories, namely (1) culturally sensitive teaching and (2) socially sensitive teaching. In society to verify this categorization, we performed a factor analysis with ii factors. The items and their factor loadings tin can exist found in Tabular array ​ A1 below.

Table A1

Culturally responsive teaching: item selection and reduction

Retained Items		Cistron loadings
Loaded on culturally sensitive teaching factor (Factor 1)		Factor 1	Factor 2
CRT_5	Place aspects in which the schoolhouse culture (for case, values, norms, and practices) differs from the abode civilisation of my students.	.652	−.021
CRT_12	Establish community betwixt students when my course exists of students from various backgrounds.	.505	.239
CRT_13	Employ the cultural background of my students to make learning meaningful.	.712	−.077
CRT_16	Obtain information regarding the cultural background of my students.	.592	.081
CRT_19	Design a classroom environment with attributes that stand for a variety of cultures.	.478	−.041
CRT_27	Revise educational materials to improve its' representation of cultural groups.	.664	−.021
CRT_28	Critically study the curriculum in order to determining whether it does or does non strengthen negative cultural stereotypes.	.358	.014
CRT_30	Pattern tasks in the classroom in a fashion that helps improve the agreement of students studying Dutch.	.521	−.072
CRT_31	Communicate with the parents of students studying Dutch nigh their child's achievements.	.418	.198
CRT_35	Brand use of examples that are relatable for students from culturally unlike backgrounds.	.700	−.073
CRT_37	Obtain data concerning my students' academic interests.	.298	.249
CRT_38	Make use of my students' interests to make learning meaningful to them.	.363	.236

Loaded on Socially Sensitive Teaching Cistron (Factor ii)
CRT_1	Adapt instructions to cater to the needs of my students.	−.054	.644
CRT_2	Obtain information regarding the academic strengths of my students.	−.112	.565
CRT_3	Assess whether my students rather work solitary or in a group.	−.023	.284
CRT_7	Judge my students' learning using various kinds of tests.	.016	.406
CRT_21	Obtain information regarding my students' bookish weaknesses.	−.011	.634
CRT_26	Help students establish positive relationships with their classmates.	.080	.463
CRT_34	Employ a learning preference survey to obtain information on how my students prefer to learn.	.200	.397
CRT_40	Develop education according to my students' developmental needs.	.135	.538
Excluded Items
CRT_4	Assess whether my students are comfortable with competing with other students.	–	–
CRT_6	Implement strategies to minimize the effects of the mismatch between my students' domicile culture and the schoolhouse culture.	–	–
CRT_6	Implement strategies to minimize the furnishings of the mismatch between my students' abode civilization and the school civilization.	–	–
CRT_8	Obtain information regarding the home life of my students.	–	–
CRT_9	Institute a feeling of trust with my students.	–	–
CRT_10	Establish positive relationships between dwelling and school.	–	–
CRT_11	Employ a variety of educational methods.	–	–
CRT_14	Use my students' common knowledge to aid them understand new data.	–	–
CRT_15	Identify how the way in which students communicate at abode can differ from the school'southward norms.	–	–
CRT_17	Teach students about their cultures' contributions to science.	–	–
CRT_18	Greet students studying Dutch with a phrase from their mother tongue.	–	–
CRT_20	Establish a personal relationship with my students.	–	–
CRT_22	Praise students studying Dutch for their achievements, using a phrase in their female parent tongue.	–	–
CRT_23	Identify ways in which standardized tests tin be prejudiced against linguistically different students.	–	–
CRT_24	Communicate with parents regarding the progress of their child's education.	–	–
CRT_25	Construction parent–teacher conferences in a way in which this meeting is not intimidating to parents.	–	–
CRT_29	Develop a lesson, which shows how other cultural groups accept made apply of mathematics.	–	–
CRT_33	Identify ways in which standardized tests tin be prejudiced against culturally unlike students.	–	–
CRT_36	Explain new concepts using examples from my students' daily lives.	–	–
CRT_39	Implement cooperative learning activities for students who prefer to work in groups.	–	–

Footnotes

¹We use the describing word 'minoritized' rather than 'minority' when referring to students with a migration history. We believe this better reflects the continued lack of acknowledgment of varying experiences and needs of students who come from historically marginalized racial and indigenous groups, fifty-fifty when they are not a numerical minority in the classroom.

^twoIn our data collection, nosotros also included a 3‐detail measure of multicultural didactics pertaining more to prejudice reduction practices (used in e.thou., Verkuyten & Thijs, 2002). However, as the items did non show convergent validity with and were non as robust every bit the CRT measure, nosotros did not include them in further steps.

References

• Abacioglu, C. S. , Zee, Yard. , Hanna, F. , Soeterik, I. Thou. , Fischer, A. H. , & Volman, M. (2019). Practice what you preach: The moderating role of instructor attitudes on the relationship between prejudice reduction and educatee engagement. Instruction and Teacher Education, 86, 102887 10.1016/j.tate.2019.102887 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Agirdag, O. , Merry, M. Due south. , & Van Houtte, G. (2016). Teachers' agreement of multicultural education and the correlates of multicultural content integration in Flanders. Education and Urban Guild, 48, 556–582. x.1177/0013124514536610 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Allison, P. D. (2009). The SAGE handbook of quantitative methods in psychology (Millsap R. East. & Maydeu‐Olivares A., Eds.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. [Google Scholar]
• Allport, M. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Oxford, United kingdom: Addison‐Wesley. [Google Scholar]
• Aronson, B. , & Laughter, J. (2016). The theory and practice of culturally relevant education: A synthesis of enquiry across content areas. Review of Educational Research, 86(1), 163–2016. 10.3102/0034654315582066 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Batson, C. D. , Polycarpou, Thousand. P. , Harmon‐Jones, Due east. , Imhoff, H. J. , Mitchener, Due east. C. , Bednar, L. 50. , … Highberger, 50. (1997). Empathy and attitudes: Can feeling for a member of a stigmatized group amend feelings toward the group? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(one), 105–118. 10.1037/0022-3514.72.one.105 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Bonfils, Thousand. A. , Lysaker, P. H. , Minor, K. S. , & Salyers, M. P. (2017). Empathy in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index. Psychiatry Research, 249, 293–303. 10.1016/j.psychres.2016.12.033 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Case, 1000. A. (2007). Raising White privilege awareness and reducing racial prejudice: Assessing variety course effectiveness. Teaching of Psychology, 34, 231–235. 10.1080/00986280701700250 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Cooper, B. (2004). Empathy, interaction and caring: Teachers' roles in a constrained environment. Pastoral Intendance in Pedagogy, 22(3), 12–21. 10.1111/j.0264-3944.2004.00299.x [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Cuseo, J. (2000). Cooperative/collaborative structures explicitly designed to promote positive interdependence amid grouping members. Normal, IL: llinois Land University, Function of Bookish Technologies, Center for Teaching, Learning, and Applied science. [Google Scholar]
• Darling‐Hammond, L. (2000). How teacher education matters. Journal of Teacher Didactics, 51, 166–173. ten.1177/0022487100051003002 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring private differences in empathy: Prove for a multidimensional arroyo. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(ane), 113–126. 10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• De Corte, One thousand. , Buyyse, A. , Verhofstadt, 50. L. , Roeyers, H. , Ponnet, K. , & Davis, M. H. (2007). Measuring empathic tendencies: Reliability and validity of the Dutch version of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index. Psychologica Belgica, 47, 235–260. 10.5334/pb-47-iv-235 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Deci, E. L. , & Ryan, R. K. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and cocky‐decision in human behavior. New York, NY: Plenum. [Google Scholar]
• Dimick, A. Due south. (2012). Student empowerment in an ecology science classroom: Toward a framework for social justice science instruction. Science Education, 96, 990–1012. 10.1002/sce.21035 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Edwards, L. (2016). Homogeneity and inequality: School subject inequality and the role of racial composition. Social Forces, 95(1), 55–76. x.1093/sf/sow038 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Feger, G.‐5. (2006). "I desire to read": How culturally relevant texts increase pupil engagement in reading. Multicultural Education, 13(3), 18–19. [Google Scholar]
• Finlay, K. A. , & Stephan, West. Grand. (2000). Improving intergroup relations: The effects of empathy on racial attitudes. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30, 1720–1737. x.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02464.x [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Forgasz, H. , Tan, H. , Leder, G. , & McLeod, A. (2018). Enhancing survey participation: Facebook advertisements for recruitment in educational enquiry. International Journal of Enquiry and Method in Instruction, 41, 257–270. 10.1080/1743727X.2017.1295939 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Galinsky, A. D. , & Moskowitz, G. B. (2000). Perspective‐taking: Decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and in‐group favoritism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 708–724. 10.1037/0022-3514.78.4.708 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Gay, G. (2000). Culturally responsive didactics: Theory, research, and do. New York, NY: Teachers College Printing. [Google Scholar]
• Gay, Thousand. (2002). Preparing for culturally responsive didactics. Journal of Instructor Teaching, 53, 106–116. 10.1177/0022487102053002003 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Gay, Yard. (2010). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice (2nd ed .). New York, NY: Teachers College Press. [Google Scholar]
• Gay, G. (2013). Didactics to and through cultural diversity. Curriculum Inquiry, 43(1), 48–70. 10.1111/curi.12002 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Germain, Grand. H. (1998). Worldly teachers: Cultural learning and pedagogy. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey. [Google Scholar]
• Gini, Yard. , Albiero, P. , Benelli, B. , & Altoè, Grand. (2007). Does empathy predict adolescents' bullying and defending beliefs? Aggressive Behavior, 33(v), 467–476. 10.1002/ab.20204 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Grant, R. A. , & Asimeng‐Boahene, L. (2006). Culturally responsive pedagogy in citizenship education: Using African proverbs as tools for teaching in urban schools. Multicultural Perspectives, 8(4), 17–24. 10.1207/s15327892mcp0804_4 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Harriott, W. A. , & Martin, S. S. (2016). Using culturally responsive activities to promote social competence and classroom community. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 37(ane), 48–54. 10.1177/004005990403700106 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Militarist, Southward. T. , Keijsers, L. , Branje, Due south. J. T. , Van Der Graaff, J. , De Wied, Grand. , & Meeus, W. (2013). Examining the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) amidst early on and late adolescents and their mothers. Journal of Personality Assessment, 95(1), 96–106. x.1080/00223891.2012.696080 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Johnson, D. W. , & Johnson, R. T. (2000). Cooperative learning, values, and culturally plural classrooms In Leicester M., Modgil C., & Modgil S. (Eds.), Education, culture and values: Vol. 3. Classroom bug: Exercise, pedagogy and curriculum (pp. eighteen–36). New York, NY: Falmer Press. [Google Scholar]
• Johnson, R. A. , & Wichern, D. W. (2015). Applied multivariate statistical analysis (6th ed .). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Didactics Inc. [Google Scholar]
• Kim, J. , & Pulido, I. (2015). Examining hip‐hop every bit culturally relevant instruction. Periodical of Curriculum and Pedagogy, 12(1), 17–35. 10.1080/15505170.2015.1008077 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Ladson‐Billings, G. (2014). Culturally relevant education 2.0: Aka the remix. Harvard Educational Review, 84(i), 74–84. ten.17763/haer.84.one.p2rj131485484751 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Landsman, J. (2006). Bearers of hope: Helping struggling students. Educational Leadership, 63(5), 26–32. [Google Scholar]
• Lim, Fifty. , Tan, M. , & Saito, E. (2019). Culturally relevant pedagogy: Developing principles of description and analysis. Pedagogy and Teacher Education, 77(1), 43–52. 10.1016/j.tate.2018.09.011 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• McAllister, M. , & Irvine, J. J. (2002). The office of empathy in teaching culturally diverse students: A qualitative study of teachers' beliefs. Journal of Teacher Education, 53, 433–443. ten.1177/002248702237397 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• McDonald, J. D. (2008). Measuring personality constructs: The advantages and disadvantages of self‐reports, informant reports and behavioural assessments. Enquire, ane(1), 1–18. [Google Scholar]
• Morrison, Chiliad. A. , Robbins, H. H. , & Rose, D. Thou. (2008). Operationalizing culturally relevant instruction: A synthesis of classroom‐based research. Disinterestedness and Excellence in Education, 41, 433–452. 10.1080/10665680802400006 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Moskowitz, G. B. (2005). Social cognition. New York, NY: Guilford Printing. [Google Scholar]
• Nieto, South. M. (2004). Affirming multifariousness: The sociopolitical context of multicultural instruction. Boston, MA: Pearson Allyn & Bacon. [Google Scholar]
• OECD (2016). Low-performing students: Why they fall behind and how to help them succeed. Paris, Italy: PISA, OECD Publishing; x.1787/9789264250246-en [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Phalet, Thou. , Andriessen, I. , & Lens, Westward. (2004). How future goals heighten motivation and learning in multicultural classrooms. Educational Psychology Review, 16(i), 59–89. ten.1023/B:EDPR.0000012345.71645.d4 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Phinney, J. S. (1992). The multigroup ethnic identity measure. Periodical of Adolescent Research, 7, 156–176. 10.1177/074355489272003 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Ponterotto, J. Chiliad. , Baluch, S. , Greig, T. , & Rivera, L. (1998). Evolution and initial score validation of the teacher multicultural attitude survey. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 58, 1002–1026. 10.1177/0013164498058006009 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Ponterotto, J. Yard. , Burkard, A. , Ponterotto, J. G. , Burkard, A. , Brian, P. , Ingrid, Thousand. , … Rath, J. F. (1995). Quick bigotry index. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 55, 1016–1031. 10.1177/0013164495055006011 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Powell, R. , Cantrell, S. C. , Malo‐Juvera, Five. , & Correll, P. (2016). Operationalizing culturally responsive educational activity: Preliminary findings of CRIOP research. Teachers Higher Record, 118(one), 1–46. [Google Scholar]
• Robins, K. N. , Lindsey, R. , Lindsey, D. , & Terrell, R. (2006). Culturally proficient instruction: A guide for people who teach (2nd ed .). Yard Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. [Google Scholar]
• Rychly, 50. , & Graves, E. (2012). Instructor characteristics for culturally responsive didactics. Multicultural Perspectives, xiv(1), 44–49. 10.1080/15210960.2012.646853 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Siwatu, K. O. (2007). Preservice teachers' culturally responsive teaching self‐efficacy and consequence expectancy beliefs. Pedagogy and Instructor Education, 23, 1086–1101. 10.1016/j.tate.2006.07.011 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Sleeter, C. E. , & McLaren, P. (2009). Origins of multiculturalism In Au W. (Ed.), Rethinking multicultural educational activity: Pedagogy for racial and cultural justice (pp. 17–nineteen). Milwaukee, WI: Rethinking Schools. [Google Scholar]
• Sunar, D. , & Fişek, G. Ö. (2005). Contemporary Turkish families In Roopnarine J. L. & Gielen U. P. (Eds.), Families in global perspective (pp. 169–183). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. [Google Scholar]
• Swanson, D. P. , Cunningham, M. , Youngblood, J. , & Spencer, M. B. (2009). Racial identity development during childhood In Neville H. A., Tynes B. M. & Utsey S. O. (Eds.), Handbook of African American Psychology (pp. 269–281). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. [Google Scholar]
• Thijs, J. , & Verkuyten, Yard. (2014). Schoolhouse ethnic diverseness and students' interethnic relations. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(1), one–21. 10.1111/bjep.12032 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Tobisch, A. , & Dresel, M. (2017). Negatively or positively biased? Dependencies of teachers' judgments and expectations based on students' indigenous and social backgrounds. Social Psychology of Instruction, 20, 731–752. x.1007/s11218-017-9392-z [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Van Den Bergh, Fifty. , Denessen, E. , Hornstra, 50. , Voeten, M. , & Holland, R. W. (2010). The implicit prejudiced attitudes of teachers: Relations to teacher expectations and the ethnic achievement gap. American Educational Inquiry Journal, 47, 497–527. 10.3102/0002831209353594 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• van Tartwijk, J. , den Brok, P. , Veldman, I. , & Wubbels, T. (2009). Teachers' practical knowledge about classroom management in multicultural classrooms. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25, 453–460. 10.1016/j.tate.2008.09.005 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Verkuyten, Grand. , & Thijs, J. (2002). Racist victimization amidst children in the Netherlands: The effect of indigenous grouping and schoolhouse. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 25, 310–331. 10.1080/01419870120109502 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Warren, C. A. (2018). Empathy, teacher dispositions, and preparation for culturally responsive education. Periodical of Teacher Pedagogy, 69, 169–183. 10.1177/0022487117712487 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Zhang, B. , Mildenberger, M. , Howe, P. D. , Marlon, J. , Rosenthal, S. A. , & Leiserowitz, A. (2018). Quota sampling using Facebook advertisements. Political Scientific discipline Inquiry and Methods, 6, one–seven. 10.1017/psrm.2018.49 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

thompsonconcestly.blogspot.com

Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7496989/

Share this post